Police Discretion

Police Discretion

Police discretion refers law enforcer’s opportunity to exercise choice on their line of duty. While the police officers when executing their duties should consider discretion, it must not be used in the enforcement of law. In essence, police discretion is a critical law enforcement trait because it allows a law enforcement agent to apply different course of actions to different scenarios. Lack of police discretion implies that all situations must be handled with the same force, which could earn a bad reputation to the police department (Walker & Katz, 2012). In addition to innocent citizens getting injured, people will file lawsuits against the police service. Police discretion can be implemented to handle particular situations, especially if control mechanisms are applied.

Realistically, police discretion cannot be eliminated. Nonetheless, numerous issues associated with discretion prompt the use of control mechanisms. Internally, departmental procedures and policies should be implemented on the use of laws that limits the law enforcer’s use of discretion (Kadish & Kadish, 2013). Externally, the law enforcement agencies should establish better supervision of patrol officers to observe their activities and to address issues as they arise. For instance in the New York City, the development of procedures and policies on the use of deadly force had a positive impact.

Furthermore, legislatures reduce police discretion if introduced. Zero-tolerance laws, for example, demands the use of police sanctions such as arrests for specific crimes. Other crimes that fit into the category include firearm crimes, drug crimes, and domestic violence. Citizens (through communities) can introduce zero-tolerance environment where polluters are prosecuted, thus requiring the intervention of law enforcers. Communities have an ability to come to a consensus to work hand-in-hand with the police in upholding societal law and order.

Question 2: Utilitarianism and Deontological Ethics

Utilitarian ethics refers to a normative ethical system concerned with the outcomes of ethical decision (Sellers, 2016). Similar to teleological theory, utilitarianism has a notion that the act’s consequence determines its morality or immorality. On the other hand, deontological ethics considers the morality of law enforcer’s act based on adherence to a set of rules.

Police officers have a discretion that ought to be exercised at all ranks regardless of the experience or seniority. During the exercise, complex issues confront the law enforcement officers. In most cases, such issues are not included in the agency’s policy but were possibly covered during police training or formal education (Pollock, 2014). The society and the government expect police officers to make delicate decisions. Thus, they should rely on utilitarianism for ethical decision making that is defensible in case of  future scrutiny. For instance, a police officer tasked with policing a pro-smoking protest may spot a protester within the group selling marijuana. Essentially, the law enforcement officer has a legal mandate to charge the individual under Controlled Drug and Substance Abuse Act. Interestingly, this will be a serious indictable violation.

From a utilitarian standpoint, the officer has an option not to arrest and charge the offender because the pro-marijuana protesters will be happier in comparison with a few individuals that will not be pleased by the officer’s decision. Secondly, if the officer makes a trafficking arrest, the pro-marijuana protesters will likely confront the officer violently. The officer, therefore, should consider the potential consequences if people were allowed to sell or smoke marijuana as a recreational drug. If the law enforcer is convinced that the society is comfortable with the rule, he should allow the sale of the drug to continue.  

Question 3: Police Officer Federal Liability

            Most police officers fear exposure to liability for their actions, both improper and proper. However, courts in the United States only sanction extreme egregious police conduct to avoid second-guessing. Under 42 USC sec. 1983, the citizens have a remedy for redressing officer’s violations of civil rights. While this section falls short of creating substantive rights, it is an important mechanism to enforce rights granted by the US constitution. The plaintiff must show clear evidence of constitutional violation under state law (Dempsey, 2013). There are three elements of 42 USC sec. 1983. First, the officers must have violated a federally protected right or the constitution. Second, the violation must occur due to a police action that is taken under the cover of law. It implies that the officer misused his power accorded by federal law. Lastly, the plaintiff must suffer damages, though courts at times grant nominal damages to vindicate the plaintiff. Some of the most common police liabilities under this section include false imprisonment, use of unreasonable or excessive force, and, and malicious prosecution.

            People that forward claims of false arrest cite a violation of Fourth Amendment that protects the citizens against unreasonable seizure (Hess et al., 2015). Notably, the arrest is reasonable if the plaintiff committed a crime. In the case of malicious prosecution, claims regrinding the infringement of Fourteenth Amendment on the right to liberty. The plaintiff cannot win this claim unless there is no probable cause and the police triggered the proceeding. A case on the use of excessive force often ends in plaintiffs favor especially if the police officer had ill intentions. Ideally, the outcome holds irrespective of reasonability of excessive force.

Question 4: Community Policing

            Community policing focuses on police working closely and building ties with the members of a given community. The program requires police to adopt a proactive approach in addressing public safety concerns (Cordner, 2014). Additionally, community policing creates partnerships between community members and the law enforcement agency. The program recognizes that the police cannot successfully solve public safety issues alone without the creation of interactive partnerships. In this sense, the policing involves the in developing permanent solutions that eliminate crime in the society. Besides helping to curb disorder, law enforcement officers are helpful in times of emergency. The community is an important source of information for solving the crime and addressing the societal concerns.  Over time, strong bond between the police and community members develops for better service provision.

Challenges

In other communities, the program has received strong resistance from the residents, thus diminishing its effectiveness. In addition, it is hard to assess the impact because of little research and data available to prove the success of community policy. As a result, police are wary of introducing it in densely populated areas. Moreover, the implementation process is tedious and costly. It takes a significant amount of time to educate the public and to integrate community policing as a system of law enforcement. Citizens wrongly interpret police history in the United States, making it harder to conceive a new form of policing because none existed in the past (Gill et al., 2014). Police are also viewed as crime fighters. Therefore, it is hard to justify other programs other than the activities of law enforcement agents.

References

Cordner, G. (2014). Community Policing. The Oxford Handbook of Police and Policing, 148-171.

Dempsey, J. S., & Forst, L. S. (2013). An Introduction to Policing. New York: Cengage Learning.

Gill, C., Weisburd, D., Telep, C. W., Vitter, Z., & Bennett, T. (2014). Community-Oriented Policing To Reduce Crime, Disorder and Fear and Increase Satisfaction and Legitimacy among Citizens: A Systematic Review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(4), 399-428.

Hess, K. M., Orthmann, C. H., & Cho, H. L. (2015). Police Operations: Theory and Practice. New York: Cengage Learning.

Kadish, M. R., & Kadish, S. H. (2013). Discretion to Disobey: A Study of Lawful Departures From Legal Rules. Chicago: Quid Pro Books.

Pollock, J. M. (2014). Ethical Issues in Policing. Controversies in Policing, 119.

Sellers, B. G. (2016). Ethics in Policing. The Encyclopaedia of Crime & Punishment.

Walker, S., & Katz, C. M. (2012). Police in America. London: McGraw-Hill.

Pinto Fires

Pinto Fires

The Pinto Fires case involved an explosion of a ford car due to a defective design of fuel system. The event sparked numerous debates across the country. Most of them centered on the ethics surrounding Ford’s decision not to upgrade fuel system design based on the cost-benefit analysis (CBA). Pinto Fires case study demonstrates that greed is the root of all evil. It motivates large multinationals such as Ford to abandon ethical decision making for financial gains. In the end, the move cost several human lives. Prior to the Pinto disaster, Ford had a remarkable reputation as a safety pioneer in automobile industry because it introduced safety belts.  The use of an 8-step model of ethical decision making in Pinto Fires case study will assist in deciding whether the vehicles should be recalled or not (Loe et al., 2012). If the decision maker can follow the 8 steps, he is informed on the ethical dilemmas and how to solve them effectively.

Step 1: Gathering facts

            The first step entails gathering factual information from checklists, surveys, or documentation review. Observation of particular processes in case studies such as Pinto Fires can also come into play in the first step. In Pinto Fires case, three teenage girls died in August 1978 from Ford Pinto’s fire explosion (Trevino & Nelson, 2010: pp. 64).  The sale of Ford Pinto began in 1970. Immediately, victims of car crashes pressed reckless homicide charges against the automaker. Pinto manufacturers planned that the car will not cost more than $2,000 and would weigh less than two thousand pounds. During the subsequent crash tests, gas tanks ruptured nearly every time. Besides, a 1976 research indicated that tens of thousands of Ford Pinto burned every year. Consequently, the company introduced a rapture-proof fuel tank in 1977. However, the improvements gas tanks were hardly justified, given that each cost $11 and were done on dying cars. Ford’s preferred trunk space to fixing gas tank in a safe location. According to the company’s estimates, the cost of human loss in the society is $200,275.  

Step 2: Definition of Ethical Issues

            This step entails weighing cons and pros with divulging and holding certain facts. Essentially, the step reflects on the facts that harm an individual, a business entity, or the society.  On the consequentialist perspective, this case provides a view of Ford, especially if the car recall happened a year after Pinto’s release. Further, the individuals that conducted failed crash test lost jobs while the company is disgraced. Chaos and public outcry arose as well. On the deontological perspective, human lives and the estimated price per individual were lost.

Step 3: Identification of the Affected Parties

This step analyzes the parties that lost or won during the court process. Ford is at risk of losing credibility, customers, and financial resources. From a Deontological point of view, the attention is focused on the vehicles’ drivers and the passengers rather than Ford’s reputation or monetary losses.  Moreover, the attention will shift to the community where the accident occurred in and the contribution of the victims to the society. In fact, the family members of the crash victims are affected because of loss of loved ones. In the short-term, Ford’s continued gains from the sale of cost-effective automobiles seem beneficial, but in the long run, the firm has a dented reputation as the society realizes the extent of damage caused by defective Pinto. In the end, Richard Grimshaw was compensated and cars were recalled.

Step 4: Identification of Consequences

In this step, the short-term consequences are identified against the long-term impact. It is probable that the incident was an isolated case and would never happen again. In this case, it is arguable that Ford’s recall coordinator was right in his decision not to recall defective Pintos despite constant complaints of gas tank rupture (Trevino & Nelson, 2010: pp. 65). In this way, Ford retains its reputations and continues the sale of cost effective cars for higher profit. However, the company loses in the long run because its employees lose jobs due to unethical practices. Some of the workers involved in the test program are likely to face the full force of law for ignoring safety procedures.

Step 5: Identification of the Obligations

The Ford motors chose to design trucks and cars to transport humans from one destination to the other. Therefore, they accepted all the responsibilities that come with human transport means. Not only does the company have an obligation n customer safety, but also the environment and the society. The initial obligations include redesigning of the fuel tank for safety. After frequent reports of accents due to designer’s negligence, Ford has an obligation to compensate Victims and to recall all Pintos in service.

Step 6: Consideration of Character and Integrity

            With the knowledge of this step, I can define my character and core values for ethical decision making and sound judgment. My integrity is based on treating others equally as I would have them treat me. I am convinced that business people should not allow their humanity to be replaced by greed and burning desire for financial gains. Instead, the business culture must revolve around transparency, ethics, and concern for customer’s wellbeing.

Step 7: Thinking Creatively about Potential Actions

Step 7 involves identification of possible solutions to Pinto Fires case. Ideally, finding a lasting solution to a problem such as that of Ford is not easy. Consequently, the decisions made should suit both the organization and the affected customers. Still, Ford made profits from the sale of Pinto for more than 5 years. At the same time, the customers purchased affordable lighter Pinto with a large trunk space.

Step 8: Checking my Gut

Despite the financial implication to the company, I would have recalled all the Ford Pintos to eliminate any case of injury or loss of life due to explosions and fires.

Lessons Learned

Pinto’s case teaches the importance of exercising ethical business practices to ensure customer satisfaction and to uphold the organization’s image. If Ford’s leadership had acted ethically on the recommendations from the crash test, the incurrence in the redesign of fuel tank would have been dismal. Furthermore, the reputation will have remained intact. It calls for the elimination of greed that can lead to a future demise of the corporation and its values.

Reflection

Pinto Fires case study provides a chronological occurrence of ethical failures that resulted in massive losses to Ford. Before the accident occurred, Ford had a clean record of safety and application of best business practices. However, managerial flaws and deterioration in decision-making resulted in negligence that cost hundreds of lives. Eventually, Ford’s reputation was stained. By Tracking Ford’s actions, I can  highlight business practices that must be avoided when making ethical business decisions.

References

Loe, T. W., Ferrell, L., & Mansfield, P. (2012). A Review of Empirical Studies Assessing Ethical Decision Making in Business. Journal of Business Ethics, 185-204.

Trevino, L. K., & Nelson, K. A. (2010). Managing Business Ethics. London: John Wiley & Sons: 60-68.

Quality Safety and Education for Nurses

Quality Safety and Education for Nurses

The QSEN initiative (Quality and Safety Education for Nurses) was established to answer the medical institute’s trio of reports that stress the importance of enhancing safety and quality of healthcare in America. The initiative has six competencies that include evidence-based practice, patient-centered care, and safety. In addition, the program has innovative curricular guides to better prepare caregivers to improve their working environment (Cronenwett et al., 2014).

Evidence-based practice integrates patient/ family’s preferences and clinical expertise with the best current evidence to ensure optimal healthcare delivery. In my profession, I strive to differentiate my clinical opinion from evidence summaries and research work because I understand the potential presence of flaws. Besides, I consult reliable sources to locate clinical practice guidelines and reports. However, I consult widely with clinical experts before making a decision to deviate from evidence-based protocols.

Patient-centered care, on the other hand, entails recognition of patient as a full partner and a source of control to provide coordinated and compassionate care based on respect for patient’s needs, values, and preferences. I understand that the healing process involves consulting with the patient or family members to determine the factors that contribute to their condition. In this way, I can accord the best care for a quick recovery, hence the attainment of medicine’s core objective. Furthermore, I communicate patient’s preferences and values to physicians and other members of healthcare team (Arnold & Boggs, 2015).

Patient safety is at the heart of nursing and healthcare practice throughout medicine’s history (Durham & Alden, 2011). However, throughout the world, there are instances of non-deliberate harm that occurs to patients seeking care. Unfavorable incidences such as these happen at healthcare levels such as managerial, preventive, private or general healthcare. The harm to patients and healthcare providers can be minimized or eliminated through individual professional performance or system effectiveness. In a local healthcare facility, I have encountered the benefits of safety-enhancing technology integrated into the system. For instance, use of automatic harm provides early warning in case of fire, hence people can be evacuated safely.

References

Arnold, E. C., & Boggs, K. U. (2015). Interpersonal Relationships: Professional Communication Skills for Nurses. Elsevier Health Sciences.

Cronenwett, L., Sherwood, G., Barnsteiner, J., Disch, J., Johnson, J., Mitchell, P. & Warren, J. (2014). Quality And Safety Education For Nurses. Nursing Outlook. 122-131.

Durham, C. F., & Alden, K. R. (2011). Enhancing Patient Safety in Nursing Education through Patient Simulation.

Full Sentence Outline

Full Sentence Outline

Starting a company calls for adequate research on business prospects and potential benefits in the long-run. People that have entrepreneurship aspirations ought to weigh the available options carefully and consider their qualifications (Dine, 2014). In this regard, it is necessary for the aspiring start-up leaders to be smart to guarantee success. Besides, they should be aware of the different phases that the business will undergo during its early years. There are several important parts to a business, though other parts can appear to be random floating appendages on a hypothetic company torso. However, each part is strongly connected to the other, hence a need for a quick-witted entrepreneur. A careful and adequate understanding of such subtle connections makes the difference between excellent start-ups and firms that fails within three years after conception. In light of this, it is arguable that to start a business entity, a person needs to be highly qualified and intelligent.

It is easy for intelligent people to make well-informed and rational decisions based on facts (BradBerry, 2015). Before starting a company, smart entrepreneurs gather business data from various sources and compare them prior to making decisions. In the business world, there is a fierce competition in the use of technology and customer service. It takes an intelligent entrepreneur to understand the market demands and deliver them accordingly. Innovation is fundamental for a company to evolve into a brand. Therefore, smart people come in handy because they possess creative and useful ideas to boost business performance. The argument is also strengthened by a recent research indicate a strong correlation success and emotional intelligence.

Nearly all the successful entrepreneurs today possess exceptional skills and brilliance. For example, Steve Job’s intuitiveness resulted in the success of Apple Company, a leading tech firm in the manufacture of smart phones and tablets. Similarly, Bill Gates was one of the most talented computer programmers of his time. As a smart young college dropout, he oversaw the formation of Microsoft to meet the rising demands of personal computer software. Walt Disney, on the other hand, is a celebrated pioneer technopreneur in film production. At the time of boom in motion picture industry, a smart Disney saw limitless opportunities in the film industry (Barrier, 2007). History credits him for introducing animations, hence the conception of Walt Disney Company.

Like any other profession, starting a company is a challenging undertaking that demands intelligence. The planning process alone is tedious and time-consuming, hence the need for a higher brain power (Oros, 2015). In the early stages, an entrepreneur should look for reliable sources of funding for the business. If he fails, the business cannot take off successfully (Patel, 2015). Secondly, the entrepreneur must extensively analyze the business environment where the start-up will be set up. Potential market shocks and macroeconomic challenges ought to be assessed exhaustively (Lloyd, 1992). In this way, the business owner can formulate risk mitigation strategies. Lastly, the owner of the company should have an advanced understanding of business-related theories and frameworks to be applied.

There is a misconception that smart individuals think so much that they miss out on great opportunities (Jensen, 2012; Willis, 2002). However, such an argument is easily dismissible because research shows that intelligent people are more likely to seize the best opportunities as compared to individuals of average intelligence. Undeniably, entrepreneurs like Bill Gates and Steve Jobs are drop-outs, but they found it easier to attain a sustainable success. While specialized firms exist to offer advisory services, smart entrepreneurs save money and start a business entity themselves.

In summary, it is clear that the aspiring entrepreneurs should be witty for better chances of success of their start-ups. Passion alone is not enough to guarantee business survival during the first three years. Challenges often arise from limited funding and firm’s inability to attract a wider market. However, if the owner of a company is smart, he will devise creative ways to fund business operations (Berry et al., 1997). Additionally, smart people make informed and rational decisions that are useful in combating surging levels of competition. Despite the fact that most successful entrepreneurs such as Bill Gates and Walt Disney had higher intelligence quotient, more research should be conducted to prove the existence of a relationship between success and intelligence in the business world.

References

Barrier, J. M. (2007). The Animated Man: A life of Walt Disney. University of California Press.

Berry, L. L., Seiders, K., & Greshman, L. G. (1997). For Love and Money: The Common Traits of Successful Retailers. Organizational Dynamics, 26(2), 7-23.

BradBerry, T. (2015). Why You Need Emotional Intelligence To Succeed. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/travisbradberry/2015/01/07/why-you-need-emotional-intelligence-to-succeed/#405fd5272c74

Dine, J. (1998). Starting a Company. In Company Law (pp. 9-19). Macmillan Education UK.

Jensen, K. (2012). Intelligence Is Overrated: What You Really Need To Succeed. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/keldjensen/2012/04/12/intelligence-is-overrated-what-you-really-need-to-succeed/#5ead07296375

Lloyd, B. (1992). Practical Business Genius: 50 Smart Questions Successful Businesspeople Ask/Why Entrepreneurs Fail: Avoid the 20 Fatal Pitfalls of Running Your Business/The Barlow Clowes Affair… (Book Review). Long Range Planning, 25(6), 121.

Oros, B. (2015). Ben Franklin's Scientific Program for Prosperity and Self Improvement. Retrieved June 26, 2016, from https://books.google.com/books?id=JrgnCQAAQBAJ&dq=self improvement in business owners&source=gbs_navlinks_s

Patel, N. (2015). 90% Of Startups Fail: Here's What You Need To Know About The 10%. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/neilpatel/2015/01/16/90-of-startups-will-fail-heres-what-you-need-to-know-about-the-10/#5ca940ba55e1

Willis, H. (2002). The Curser of the Superior Intellect. IIE Solutions, 34(10), 22.

State Fusion Centers

State Fusion Centers

A contentious debate rages regarding homeland security’s fusion centers. Fusion centers are state-run organizations that focus on information sharing and analysis. These organizations are spread all over America and are funded by the state governments. In other instances, fusion centers can receive federal and local supports. As a result, the civil libertarians are increasingly becoming concerned about the threat the fusion centers pose to civil rights. Admittedly, state fusion centers were characterized by shortcomings during their early years, but significant progress has been made since then, particularly during the aftermath of 2001 terror attacks.

State fusion centers emerged at the beginning of 21^st century when the state and federal government intended to improve information sharing to prevent potential acts of terrorism as America and the west became a constant target. Dramatically, the number of state fusion centers grew from less than 10 in 2004 to more than 80 by 2014. Densely populated states have more than one fusion centers while others have one. For example in Massachusetts, the state’s susceptibility to terrorist attacks and crime has led to the development of an urban and statewide fusion centers in Boston and Maynard respectively. Likewise, California has statewide and regional fusion centers in San Francisco, Los Angeles, Santiago, Orange County, and Sacramento.

The fusion process is an overarching means to manage the flow of intelligence and information across different sectors and levels of federal government to integrate and analyze information. The fusion center guidelines define state fusion center as a collaborative effort of numerous agencies to provide expertise, information, or resources with an aim of maximizing the ability to prevent, apprehend, or detect terrorist and criminal activities. The process is reliant on the active involvement of tribal, local, federal, and state law enforcement and private sector agencies to provide raw information input for analysis (Johnson & Dorn, 2013). The increase of diverse information sources strengthens accuracy and robustness of analysis later disseminated as intelligence.

The fusion centers entail a process that proactively detect and effectively halt the perceived threats from taking place. It is based on an amalgamation of different individuals from law enforcement agencies to a specified physical location. Each individual employee is a conduit of information from his law enforcement branch. He is trained to infuse his agency’s information into an overall information body for analysis. In case the state fusion center requires intelligence, the representative becomes a conduit who process and monitor the new information demands. It is a responsibility of the agency representative as well to make sure that the threat information and analytic products are redirected back to home state for dissemination.

All 78 state fusion centers have similar purposes that include reception, analysis, and sharing of information on potential threats to state security. However, the focus varies depending on the location and the perceived threat types in different regions. In other states such as Missouri and Illinois, the main roles of fusion centers have evolved to include threats such as natural disasters and crime. Typically, state fusion centers issue analytical products like bulletins periodically to the local population. In addition, they act as hubs that send information to the community members, the federal government, and other fusion centers in different states countrywide (Forsyth, 2014).

Considering the importance of fusion centers to homeland security, the federal government provides a sizeable support to boost their efforts. Specifically, the Department of Justice collaborates with the Department of Homeland Security to develop guidelines for the centers that address governance, privacy, and their performance. The FEMA funding for the fusion centers is channeled towards the improvement of observable shortcomings to meet standards. Through the federal government, the personnel is trained and deployed to different centers to perform specialized roles. As of early 2016, there are more than 400 representatives of DEA, FBI, and TSA at different state fusion centers countrywide.

In my opinion, state fusion centers are barely beneficial in thwarting the next terrorist attacks. According to Homeland Security’s Permanent Subcommittee report released in 2012, there is clear evidence that state fusion centers provide low-quality intelligence. Therefore, it does not contribute in a meaningful way to the counterterrorism efforts (Graphia-Joyal, 2013). The committee’s claims are backed up by a wave of ISIL-inspired attacks that have rocked Boston, Orlando, and San Bernardino. Instead, there are concerns that the centers focus on monitoring lawful religious and political activities, hence poor utilization of allocated resources. Even worse, FEMA has a poor record in tracking its funding.

Furthermore, state fusion centers should address issues raised concerning the civil liberties. There is a lack of transparency and clarity in the centers’ conduct with regards to the correction of deficiencies they find, though they conduct a periodic evaluation to weigh their adherence to civil liberty protection laws, privacy, and civil rights. It should be noted that the a state fusion center cannot succeed counterterrorism unless it earns the public support. To do this, they ought to show their intention to protect not just its security but also the public’s rights.

References

Forsyth, W. A. (2014). State and Local Intelligence Fusion Centres: An Evaluative Approach in Modelling a State Fusion Centre. Naval Postgraduate School Monterey Ca.

Graphia-Joyal, R. (2013). Are Fusion Centres Achieving Their Intended Purposes? Findings from a Qualitative Study on the Internal Efficacy of State Fusion Centres. International Association of Law Enforcement Intelligence Analysts Journal, 19(1), 54-76.

Johnson, B. R., & Dorn, S. (2013). Fusion Centres: New York State Intelligence Strategy Unifies Law Enforcement. Police Chief, 75(2), 34.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY TO EVALUATE POSITIONAL STABILITY OF IMMEDIATE VERSUS DELAYED ORTHONTONTIC LODING OF MINI-SCREW IMPLANTS- A CLINICA STUDY

Introduction

Anchorage control is one of the most difficult treatment goals since the early years of orthodontics. Arguably, proper teeth position cannot be established unless the option of anchorage control is considered. Even though dentists pursue the absolute anchorage idea, history proves that it is hard to achieve. Existing literary works reveal numerous attempts to eliminate the deleterious effects of moving specific teeth while maintaining the position of others. However, this has been difficult to achieve using tooth borne anchorage. Often, unwanted tooth movement is seen invariably in teeth serving as anchor units, hence the need for auxiliary anchorage sources such as palatal buttons, lingual arches, and headgears. While devices such as these significantly improve the levels of anchorage, absolute control over dental movements is not allowed. Besides, patient compliance is required in all of these methods, but cannot be expected. If the patient does not comply, anchorage control will be lost, leading to frustration and compromised treatment results.

In the modern times, severe implant forms are applied to establish complete anchorage and eliminate instances of unwanted tooth movement. Restorative implants are approximately 8-10mm long and 3mm in diameter. When the implants are placed in the arches and allowed to heal, they can act as a prosthetic replacement of teeth in addition to orthodontic anchorage. Still, their use is limited by the healing times, arch space, and strict location.

            Additionally, onplants (2mm thickness x 10mm width) and palatal implants (3.3mm x 5mm) have been applied for orthodontic anchorage. Unlike restorative implants, doctors can use palatal implants in individuals that do not need the replacement of a missing tooth. However, their placement demands significant invasive surgery. Even worse, mechanical placement of these implants is complicated as compared to the restorative type. Despite onplants being developed for absolute anchorage without the need for bone preparation, they still require extended healing times due to surgical interventions.

            Given the setbacks of restorative implants and onplants, orthodontists worldwide are shifting their attention towards mini-screw implants (MSIs). They are small (approximately 1.2 mm thickness and 8mm length) customized titanium alloy screw serving as an anchor point on the patient’s jaw. In most cases, orthodontists place MSI in areas such as between the roots of molars and premolars, though they can also be fixed on mouth’s roof. Furthermore, orthodontists only need to perform minimal surgical procedures for removal or placement. In some situations, a local anesthetic is required to numb the gum area before mini-screw implants can be inserted. Today, orthodontists in the UK and across the world use mini-implants to correct bite problems that otherwise demand orthognathic surgery. MSIs are less expensive in comparison to onplants or restorative implants. Considering these, it is clear that MSIs are gaining prominence as dominance players in medicine, specifically in the realm of implant orthodontics.

            Undoubtedly, researchers have adequately documented the use of MSI in literature. However, a consensus is yet to be attained regarding the positional stability of mini-screw under immediate orthodontic load and operative delayed load. Further, there is a literary gap on the rate of retraction between delayed loaded implants and immediately loaded implants. Given that the use of MSIs is relatively new in the field, the comparison of molar anchorage in immediate and delayed loaded implants is yet to be determined. Therefore, this research aims at bridging the existing gaps and to advance the existing knowledge on MSIs. Currently, there is no report of 8mm long and 1.2 mm thick MSIs in the literature.

            This study shall also determine the biomechanical and clinical outcomes of orthodontic mini-screw implants under different load time regimen of immediate, 2 weeks, and 4 weeks. In addition, the researcher reviews and updates the success under delayed load of 4 weeks and immediate load in 20 healthy adult individuals equally divided into two groups. In fact, patients with systemic disorders or compromised oral hygiene are excluded from the study. In the first group, implants will be loaded as soon as the placement is done while in the second group, the MSIs will be loaded postoperatively after 4 weeks. Female patients and male subjects are be 16 and 18 years of age respectively.

            This study is based on the notion that mini-screw implants gain most of their retention capability from cortical plate location. Naturally, cancellous bone is less dense than cortical bone, hence a proposed theory that MSIs ought not to be longer or thicker than the cortical plate. The literary review contains an in-depth analysis of anchorage and its importance to orthodontic tooth movement. An adequate explanation of the importance of anchorage allows for a better understanding of the use of MSIs for orthodontic anchorage. In light of this, the evolution of implant anchorage is discussed. Subsequently, multiple studies that describe the clinical results and use of MSIs is presented and exhaustively highlighted. A discussion such as serves as an important outline of the work that has already been done and what remains to be covered in the field of mini-screw implants.  

Factors that Affect Banks Profitability

Factors that Affect Banks Profitability

In a modern economy, the productivity depends on the soundness of financial institutions. According to Pasiouras & Kosmidou (2012), the health condition of a commercial bank is crucial to economic stability and development. Banks are intermediaries between investors and savers. Specifically, commercial banks are means through which the government (through central bank) implements monetary policies (Demsetz & Strahan, 2012). In light of this, their profitability and performance are of paramount interest to the stakeholders and the economy. Default loan and administrative fee are two of the main factors that affect the profitability of banks.

Default Loan

The effect of default loan was prevalent and clearly visible during 2008 financial crisis. It exposed banks to internal corporate risks on the management of securitized assets’ individual investment portfolios. Resultantly, banks become vulnerable to bankruptcy because of limited finances to operational activities (Kosmidou, 2011). Undeniably, some crises are part of daily challenges encountered by banks. However, when cases of loan default are rampant, the impact is more severe, hence can prompt the financial institution to file for bankruptcy.  A significant percentage of bank profits accrue from interests charged on mortgages and loans (Haron & Ahmad 2014). Therefore, if banks fail to manage loan defaults effectively, they will reflect negatively on the annual profits.

Administration Fee

Operational efficiency in a bank is measured using cost-to-income ratio (Maudos et al., 2012). Administrative fee one of the operating elements as it reflects the cost of running a financial institution. Ideally, a negative relationship between profitability and the cost-to-income ratio is expected because proper management of administration fee and other operating costs increase efficiency (Athanasoglou et al., 2011). As an expenses-related variable, the administration fee is often included in the cost part when analyzing the macroeconomic standard profit function. In retrospect, the higher the administration fee, the lower the profitability of a financial institution.

References

Athanasoglou, P. P., Brissimis, S. N., & Delis, M. D. (2011). Bank-Specific, Industry-Specific and Macroeconomic Determinants of Bank Profitability. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions, and Money, 18(2), 121-136.

Demsetz, R. S., & Strahan, P. E. (2012). Diversification, Size, and Risk at Bank Holding Companies. Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking, 300-313.

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